Negative Schizotypy Reflect A Continuously Deficit Psychology Essay

Negative Schizotypy Reflect A Continuously Deficit Psychology Essay The DSM-IV: APA, diagnosiss schizophrenia based on reoccurring symptoms, including hallucinations delusions, disorganised speech, disorganised or catatonic behaviour and negative. One reason for cognitive impairments observed in schizophrenia is the processing of context. Cohen (1999) states context processing is used in general to mean the functioning of mental effort or cognitive control. It is referred to actively holding information to be used to mediate task appropriate behaviour. Buchanan et al (1994) states negative symptoms of schizophrenia are connected with deficits involving executive functioning memory. Further evidence from Dibben, et al (2009) explains executive dysfunction shows difficulty in maintaining contextual information, therefore may be an endophenotype of the schizophrenia spectrum of disorders. Research has found there are certain negative schizotypy traits, associated with schizophrenia. Lenzenweger (2010) defines schizoptypy as an underlying personality construct rather than a set of explicit behaviours, which may indicate a concealed risk of future schizophrenia. Schizotypy traits which parallel symptoms of schizophrenia vary from low to pathological, suggesting schizophrenia as a spectrum disorder. Schizotypal Personality Disorder (SPD) presents as similar symptoms to schizophrenia but are explained as a border line state in DSM-III (APA, 1980) SPD not severe enough to meet the criteria to be diagnosed as schizophrenic. Therefore signifying schizophrenia corresponds to the severe end of the spectrum. Additional support from OFlynn et al (2007) shows individuals with high schizotypy scores are cognitively linked to schizophrenia as part of a schizophrenia spectrum. Furthermore Diforio (2000) found SPD patients exhibit cognitive impairment in numerous areas, such as execu tive functioning, dual task information processing and working memory. These are similar to those seen in schizophrenia, although less severe. Studies by Barch (2004) also found individuals expressing schizotypal characteristics express deficits in attention and working memory. Studying individuals with schizotypy traits or SPD can help towards understanding systems and psychological processes contributing to schizophrenia, without confounding factors such as medication effects intervening, which is problematic when researching schizophrenia. The O-LIFE was developed to focus on traits rather than symptoms. It measures four sub-scales associated with schizotypal traits, all have been recognized to have high internal consistency. These are unusual experiences = 0.89, cognitive disorganisation = 0.87, introvertive anhedonia = 0.82 and impulse nonconformity = 0.77. (Mason et al 1995) Evidence from Burch et al (1998) found O-LIFEs test-retest reliability to be very high. However this investigation just measures introvertive anhedonia commonly referred to as a negative schizotypy trait. Meehl (1962) states Anhedonia is the reduced ability to experience social and physical sources of pleasure, as well as avoidance of intimacy, it is an important characteristic of negative symptoms describing it as one of the most consistent and dramatic behavioural signs of the disease. Additionally high social anhedonia as suggested by Blanchard et al (2000) may indicate schizotypy, relating it to a taxon amongst an undergraduate population. A study by Kwapil (1998) suggests higher scores of social anhedonia have been correlated to a greater probability of being diagnosed with future schizophrenia. This investigates uses the O-LIFE questionnaire to measure scores on the introvertive anhedonia subscale and to observe if higher scorers have difficulty with contextual processing. Haddon et al (2011) claim biconditional discrimination in the form of a contextual processing task may be used to measure the way in which task-setting cues control performance. Participants are required to learn relationships by trial-and-error between random pairs of stimuli and feedback responses. Cohen Servan-Schreiber (1992) propose task-setting cues are essential in resolving conflict which opposing stimulus-response pathways create. A study by Mason et al (1995) examined performance of participants with high and low schizotypy scores, using biconditional discrimination and a control discrimination which did not use task-setting cues. Findings showed those who scored highly on the introvertive anhedonia subscale performed weakly on the biconditional. Therefore Liddle (1987) suggests deficits in bic onditional discrimination are directly related to the introvertive anhedonia schizotypy subscale. Furthermore Burch et al (1998) states high schizotypy scores are related to impairments on cognitive tasks, similar to those with schizophrenia. Looking at previous research this investigation aims to replicate (using a related discrimination procedure) and generalise findings of Haddon et al (2011), also to contribute to developing projects on schizotypy which looks to understand effects of core cognitive deficits on severe mental illness. The investigation hypothesises the high schizotypy group will find completion of biconditional discrimination more difficult than lower groups. Method Design An experimental design was used in this study. The independent variables were the schizotypy groups 1, 2, 3 and 4. The dependent variable was the biconditional discrimination score. Participants 92 undergraduates (75 females and 17 males) participated in return for course credit and were undiagnosed as schizophrenic or taking psychotropic medication. Materials Materials included the O-life (The Oxford and Liverpool Inventory of Feelings and Experiences) questionnaire and a contextual processing task. (O-LIFE; Mason 1995) This was chosen as it is a reliable and valid measure that was specifically designed for use with sub-clinical populations. A desktop computer running windows and visual basic was used for displaying the stimuli and recording the participants responses. The contextual processing task programme was designed specifically for the investigation. Procedure Participants were tested individually in a quiet environment. The 160-item O-LIFE questionnaire used for measuring schizotypal characteristics within the normal population was shown on a projector screen and participants had to circle yes or no to the corresponding question on an answer sheet. Participants were allocated to schizotypy groups of 20 based on their introvertive anhedonia score relative to the distribution of this trait in participants of similar age and gender. They carried out a contextual processes task which tested biconditional discrimination. Participants assumed the role of a stockbroker and advised clients on stock profitability. In total of 80 training trials presented the participant with pairs of hypothetical stocks including chemicals and paper or metal and wood. Participants then discriminated on a 9 point scale which pairs of stocks would result in profit (positive outcome) and which would result in losses (negative outcome). Participants were instructed to provide a confidence rating of 1 if certain there would be a loss a rating of 5 if uncertain and a rating of 9 if certain of a profit, feedback was provided on the outcome. All four types of trial (AX, BX, AY, BY) (see fig 2) were presented randomly once within each cycle, 20 trials of each compound in total. Biconditional training AX+ AY- BY+ BX- Fig 2 Table of contingences. Completing the task involves attending to both cues consecutively to predict important events. When processing one cue (X) participants have to consider the context in which it is displayed (A or B). Data Analysis As there were multiple levels of the independent variable a one way between ANOVA was used to test for a difference. This analysis decreases chance of a type 1 error. The dependent variable biconditional discrimination was measured by taking the average difference between profit (AX BY) and loss (AY BX) trials in the final 40 trials of learning. Analysis was carried out this way because as Haddon et al (2011) show the effects between the groups emerge as learning progresses. A single score ranging from -8 and +8 was therefore produced reflecting each participants contextual learning ability. The higher the participants score the more context learning ability they have. As ANOVA only states whether there is an overall significant effect Bonferroni post hoc tests were carried out to find which means were significantly different from each other. Results Levenes test of homogeneity of variance is used to report whether variance is significantly different between groups. We cannot use the ANOVA model if there is a significant difference, although for this study Levenes test of homogeneity of variance was non-significant, (p>0.05) therefore ANOVA data can be interpreted. One way between ANOVA shows an overall significant difference between introvertive anhedonia score and contextual processing. (F (3, 88) = 6.019, p Pairwise comparisons using post hoc test bonferroni showed scores for group 1 were significantly higher than those in group 4 (p0.05). As figure 1 shows a linear association was found. (See figure 1). Figure 1. Mean discrimination score by group (s.e shown as error bars) Discussion The aim of this investigation was to further examine and replicate the findings of Haddon (2011). Findings have provided evidence consistent with this aim and hypothesis that high schizotypy groups have difficulty completing biconditional discrimination compared to lower groups. Specifically participants with higher introvertive anhedonia scores (group 4) displayed more impaired biconditional performance compared with those with low scores (group 1). The connection found between high Introvertive Anhedonia scores and impaired biconditional performance is consistent with Liddles (1987) research linking cognitive dysfunction to negative symptoms of schizophrenia and schizotypy characteristics. However it is essential to note anhedonia is not an exclusive feature of schizophrenia, having also been found in bipolar disorder. These results not only give further support to Haddon et als (2011) findings but also maintains the theory from Cohen and Servan-Schreiber (1992) that high schizotypy individuals, should be impaired on biconditional discrimination tasks since contextual information is essential for resolving conflict between opposing stimulus-response. Futhermore the statistical test ANOVA only shows there is a difference between groups scores, not stating exact cause and effect. Variation within groups could be due to individual differences or other factors that were not controlled (tiredness or mood) could affect concentration. Participants could have found the task uninteresting therefore not engaging fully; also participants different approaches to answering biconditional discrimination task can have an impact upon results. The O-LIFE questionnaire has good test-retest reliability and is useful in studying a nonclinical population. Although O-LIFE is not a diagnostic test for risk of mental illness, testing only personality traits. However there are limitations in the investigation, the sample had a clear gender bias with a larger female to male ratio. Another drawback being a young age bias as it used undergraduate students, although sampling from younger age groups produces groups with comparable distributions of introvertive anhedonia scores. Further research is needed to determine the significance of these results and their implications for the relationship between negative schizotypy traits and context processing. Researchers looking for objective indicators for causes of decline into schizophrenia could use further research using these results. Additionally larger understanding of negative symptoms could motivate research into producing therapies effective for negative symptoms. References Association, A. P. (1980). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (thrid ed.). Washington: Author. Association, A. P. (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (fourth ed.). Washington: Author. Barch, D. M., Mitropoulou, V., Harvey, P. D., New, A. S., Silverman, J. M., Siever, L. J. (2004). Context-processing deficits in schizotypal personality disorder. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 113, 556-568. Blanchard, J. J., Gangestad, S. W., Brown, S. A., Horan, W. P. (2000). Hedonic capacity and schizotypy revisited: A taxometric analysis of social anhedonia. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 109(1), 87-95. Buchanan, R. W., Strauss, M. E., Kirkpatrick, B., Holstein, C., Breier, A., Carpenter, W.T. (1994). Neuropsychological Impairments in Deficit Vs Nondeficit Forms of Schizophrenia. Archives of General Psychiatry, 51(10), 804-811. Burch, G. S. J., Steel, C., Hemsley, D. R. (1998). Oxford-Liverpool Inventory of Feelings and Experiences: Reliability in an experimental population. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 37, 107-108. Cohen, J. D., Barch, D. M., Carter, C., Servan-Schreiber, D. (1999). Context-processing deficits in schizophrenia: Converging evidence from three theoretically motivated cognitive tasks. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 108(1), 120-133. Cohen, J. D., Servan-Schreiber, D. (1992). Context, Cortex, and Dopamine a Connectionist Approach to Behavior and Biology in Schizophrenia. Psychological Review, 99(1), 45-77. Dibben, C. R. M., Rice, C., Laws, K., McKenna, P. J. (2009). Is executive impairment associated with schizophrenic syndromes? A meta-analysis. Psychological Medicine, 39(3), 381-392. Diforio, D., Walker, E. F., Kestler, L. P. (2000). Executive functions in adolescents with schizotypal personality disorder. Schizophrenia Research, 42(2), 125-134. Haddon, J. E., George, D. N., Grayson, L., McGowan, C., Honey, R. C., Killcross, S. (2011). Impaired conditional task performance in a high schizotypy population: Relation to cognitive deficits. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 64(1), 1-9. Kwapil, T. R. (1998). Social anhedonia as a predictor of the development of schizophreniaspectrum disorders. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 107(4), 558-565. Lenzenweger, M. F. (2010). Schizotypy and schizophrenia: The view from experimental psychopathology. New York: Guilford Press. Liddle, P. F. (1987). The Symptoms of Chronic-Schizophrenia a Reexamination of the Positive-Negative Dichotomy. British Journal of Psychiatry, 151, 145-151. Mason, O., Claridge, G., Jackson, M. (1995). New scale for the assessment of schizotypy, Personality and Individual Differences 18(1), 7-13. Meehl, P. E. (1962). Schizotaxia, schizotypy, schizophrenia. American Psychologist, 17, 827-838. OFlynn, K., Gruzelier, J., Bergman, A. and Siever, L.J. (2007) The Schizophrenia Spectrum Personality Disorders, in Schizophrenia, Second Edition (eds S. R. Hirsch and D. R. Weinberger), Blackwell Science Ltd, Oxford, UK.

Osmosis Experiment :: Papers

Osmosis Experiment Aim: The aim of this experiment is to show how osmosis works in a plant cell. Plan: Method The ways we will do this experiment is firstly by getting a beaker and put a 100ml of water in it, then get a visking tube and put it in the beaker, so we don't block the holes with natural grease on our hands. After, we will get another beaker and pour some 1% sugar solution in it. When we have done this, we get one end of the visking tube and 'ruffle' it, then we get some string and one person will tie the end of the tube, while the other person hold it. The visking tube then will go back in the water, while we get a dropper and the beaker of sugar solution. After we will use the dropper to slowly and neatly pour the 1% sugar solution in the visking tube; we will fill it up  ¾ of the way. Then again one person will tie the other end; while the other person holds the tube, so now we have both end tied- we will make sure they are no leaks. When we have done this, we will take the beaker with water and visking tube to a weighing machine; we will then take the visking tube out and measure the mass of it (in grams). After, we will put the visking tube back in the beaker and leave it there for about 20 minutes. When the time is up, we will measure the mass of the visking tube again (in grams). During the experiment, we will observe the visking tube during the 20 minutes and see if the mass has increased or decreased at the end of the experiment. This experiment could be repeated, but using a 10% sugar solution, which would have helped us differ the different mass increase or decrease in both of them. We were planning to do this one to, but unfortunately-due to fewer supplies of visking tubes we could only

Alcohol and Advertising Essay

â€Å"Alcohol is not often thought of as a drug – largely because its use is common for both religious and social purposes in most parts of the world. It is a drug, however, and compulsive drinking in excess has become one of modern society’s most serious problems† (ARF). This is so true because many people don’t consider alcohol a drug but the effects it has on you are so serious that it should be. â€Å"The effects of drinking do not depend on the type of alcoholic beverage – but rather on the amount of alcohol consumed on a specific occasion† (ARF). To give you a background on alcohol, here is a quick refresher on how it works and the effects it has on your body. â€Å"Alcohol is rapidly absorbed into the bloodstream from the small intestine, and less rapidly from the stomach and colon. The drinker’s blood alcohol concentration depends on the amount consumed in a given time, the drinker’s size, sex, body build, and metabolism, and the type and amount of food in the stomach† (ARF). The effects of alcohol are very frightening to even consider. They depend on â€Å"the amount taken at one time, the user’s past drug experience, the manner in which the drug is taken and the circumstances under which the drug is taken† (ARF). At 50mg you experience mild intoxication which includes a â€Å"feeling of warmth, skin flushed; impaired judgment and decreased inhibitions† (ARF). From there you can go all the way down to 500mg which will more than likely cause death. It is an extremely scary thought to know that a substance that can cause death is freely advertised on television so that even our children can see it. In fact, they are the targets of some manufacturers marketing. In this paper we will show you both sides of whether alcohol companies should be allowed to advertise on television or not and then give you our conclusion. No – Alcohol Advertising Should Not Be Allowed On Television Alcohol companies should not be allowed to advertise on television. In today’s society, more and more children are spending all of their free time in front of a television. They don’t go outside and play anymore, they just come home from school and flip on Jerry Springer or a soap opera. Adults need to take the responsibility to protect children from undue influences as much as they can. Banning alcohol advertisements would be a simple way to help this process. In a recent study done by the Center for Media Education (CME), they found that many alcohol companies actually target youth even though it is illegal for them to drink. Companies use such things as â€Å"cartoons, personalities, language, music, or branded merchandise popular in youth culture or which would be particularly attractive to college or high-school-aged students† (CME). This shows a blatant attempt on their part to recruit new consumers who are underage. There have been previous attempts to stop alcohol companies from targeting youth such as the Voluntary Alcohol Advertising Standards for Children Act, but that is just the thing, it is voluntary. This is a try at making themselves look responsible but they still really aren’t. This Act pressures broadcasters to simply not run alcohol advertisements. It shouldn’t be the responsibility of the broadcasters to filter what goes on the air. Alcohol companies should not waste their money making these ads to begin with. Instead, they need to target a more mature audience who have the right to consume their products. The beer and liquor companies claim they don’t target youth but how can that be when you see the â€Å"Budweiser frogs or the Coors’ â€Å"Tap the Rockies† campaigns or Seagram’s dogs and Hiram Walker’s Kahlua Mudslide† (Hacker). Many of these companies have, in the past, even advertised on the youth-oriented MTV. Anheuser-Busch just recently pulled their ads off MTV. â€Å"Why did it take 10 years since â€Å"age-21† became the law of the land for the world’s largest brewer to stop competing for attention on MTV with ads for pimple control products and sports equipment† (Hacker)? â€Å"Indeed the evidence is that even young children are aware of alcohol advertisements and tend to remember them. Manufacturers further reduce the chances of young people failing to get the message by sponsorship of sports teams and events and music concerts having particular appeal to the young† (IAS). â€Å"Today, kids are bombarded by more than $700 million in beer, wine, and liquor ads on radio and television. Those ads encourage them to drink, and they bolster unacceptable levels of alcohol consumption among young people and the problems that go with it† (Hacker). When considering the Budweiser frogs, â€Å"a recent study by the San Francisco-based Center on Alcohol Advertising tested commercial and character recall among 9-11 year olds. The results: the children demonstrated higher recall (73%) of the Budweiser frogs’ slogan than of the slogans associated with other television animal characters, including Tony the Tiger (57%), Smokey the Bear (43%), and the Mighty Morphin Power Rangers (39%). Only Bugs Bunny did slightly better, at 80% recall of â€Å"Eh, what’s up doc? † Overall, 81% of the children surveyed identified beer as the product promoted by the frogs† (Hacker). This is a scary revelation, that our children know more about beer ads than the cartoon characters who promote good products. There are too many people who are hurting themselves and others as a result of alcohol abuse. In the past, there have been studies done that find there is nothing wrong with alcohol companies advertising on TV, but a study done by the Marin Institute found differently. â€Å"’Until now, most of the studies done on the subject conclude that alcohol advertising doesn’t affect drinking behavior,’ says Henry Saffer, research associate at the National Bureau of Economic Research, ‘The alcohol industry uses these studies to bolster its argument that advertising only induces people to switch brands. These studies keep coming and find nothing because they set themselves up to find nothing’† (Abramson). â€Å"The NIAAA estimates that 14 million Americans meet the diagnostic criteria for alcohol abuse or dependence and about 100,000 Americans die each year from alcohol-related injuries, one-fourth of them on the highways† (Abramson). Granted that these are not just children but they had to start somewhere too and more than likely they began drinking at a young age. One way to help reduce these injuries and deaths is to create counter-ads. â€Å"Consumption decreases as the level of counter-advertising rises. Counter-advertising could be funded by taxing alcohol advertising† (Abramson). The study done by Saffer at the Marin Institute was a long one, it took three years to complete. â€Å"’Most researchers have little money and use inexpensive or free data on alcohol advertising expenditures that measure advertising at the national level with little annual change’, says Saffer. ‘I was able to obtain quarterly data that cost more than $25,000 from 75 cities, and that made all the difference’† (Abramson). With all of his resources he was able to come to some concrete results using a proven theory. â€Å"Saffer used a theory known as the advertising response function, which says that consumption rises as advertising increases, bus as advertising reaches the point of saturation, consumption tapers off. To measure consumption, he used highway fatalities, more than 40 percent of which involve alcohol consumption† (Abramson). â€Å"Saffer’s statistical analyses of advertising expenditures showed that decreasing alcohol advertising reduces highway fatalities† (Abramson). Another survey done by the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation gave remarkable results. â€Å"An overwhelming majority of Americans say they are worried about teen drinking and would support tough measures to help curb the problem† (New and Views). One particular finding was very interesting in that it said sixty-seven percent of Americans would support a ban on television advertising on liquor. If so many people want it, why isn’t on its way to becoming a law? â€Å"There are about 9 million drinkers under age 21 in the United States and half of them are binge drinkers. When they drink, teens increase their risk of violence, date rape, sexually transmitted diseases and injury or death in traffic accidents† (Health You). These kids had to learn it somewhere. Television is becoming a way of life for many teenagers and they take what is on it as the truth. For many of them, discerning between what is the truth and what is just great advertising becomes near impossible. They need help and it is our responsibility as adults to help them. There is legislation now from Representative Kennedy called the â€Å"Children’s Protection from Alcohol Advertising Act†. This â€Å"would eliminate advertising and marketing practices that have the most impact on young people. Remaining ads would, for the first time, honestly reflect that alcohol is the number-three killer in America today, taking a toll of 100,000 lives yearly. Those ads would bear a rotating series of health and safety messages, reminding all viewers and listeners of some of the major risks related to drinking. In addition, alcoholic-beverage product labels, for the first time, would be required to reveal comprehensive, useful consumer information, such as ingredients, calories, and alcohol content, expressed in unit serving terms† (Hacker). The bill would answer the concerns of many parents and adults who feel the alcohol companies go too far in targeting youths. Alcohol companies need to be more responsible for who they target and they should also be prepared to handle the consequences of their actions as more and more people die as a result of their products. They are the ones that should be held accountable for the deaths of so many innocent people. They also should include in their advertisements the real facts. Doing this may deter people from becoming alcohol abusers. The companies do not do this though, â€Å"By definition, alcohol advertising is one-sided, avoiding any reference to the negative aspects of alcohol consumption† (IAS). They need to tell the truth and the truth is that alcohol does no good for anyone, it only hurts and destroys people and the people around them. Yes – Alcohol Advertising Should Be Allowed On Television â€Å"Advertising increases alcohol consumption, which increases alcohol abuse†¦right? WRONG. There is no solid evidence from either scientific research or practical experience that this theory of advertising is correct† (Advertising Impact). Alcohol is a legal substance so why wouldn’t it be allowed to be advertised on television? The First Amendment to the Constitution gives us the right to free speech. The American Advertising Federation opposes any effort to restrict truthful advertising about any product or service. â€Å"The U. S. Supreme Court has affirmed that truthful commercial speech enjoys the free speech protections of the First Amendment – including speech about so-called sin products. The government’s right to ban a product does not give it the right to ban speech about the product† (AAF). The AAF does not want restrictions to even begin, â€Å"bans on advertising for one product or service inevitably will lead to bans on advertising for others. Censorship is contagious† (AAF). There are some that believe that the advertising would be okay if they would agree to put warnings on the advertisements. â€Å"The alcohol industry believes that the proposed requirement of warnings in alcohol advertisements is an infringement of their First Amendment rights† (Kelly). The advertising the alcohol industry does do is simply to keep the customers they already have. â€Å"The focus of alcohol advertising is to encourage existing drinkers to maintain their brand preference, or to switch brands, and that it is not intended to attract new customers† (Kelly). â€Å"Much of the debate concerns the possible effects on children and young people. The Advertising Codes prohibit the specific targeting of minors† (IAS). Most children who watch television may like the cartoon characters but that isn’t going to make them go out and demand alcohol. They shouldn’t be allowed or able to obtain it so it shouldn’t really even matter if they see the advertisements for it. â€Å"The evidence also suggests that advertising is of less importance than other influences such as parental attitudes and example and peer group pressure† (IAS). Final Conclusions As you can see from our research, there is solid evidence that advertising alcohol on television needs to stop the way it is being done right now. There are entirely too many targets put onto young viewers. The industry may claim that it is not targeting them but there is really no explanation otherwise. Mother’s Against Drunk Driving (MADD) has come up with an exceptional set of rules for advertising alcohol on television. 1. Beverage alcohol advertising should not: a. portray or encourage drinking by individuals under the age of 21; b. use celebrities, music stars, athletes, animals, cartoon characters or other language or images that have special appeal to youth; c. depict sports, rock concerts, or other events with strong appeal to youth; or d. target spring break activities or cultural, sporting, or marketing events where it can be anticipated that a majority of the audience will be made up of people under age 21. 2. Beverage alcohol advertising should not include the licensing of youth-oriented clothing or toys that feature alcohol brand names, logos, or trade characters. 2. Beverage alcohol advertising should not portray or encourage drinking by pregnant women or women who are seeking to become pregnant. 3. Beverage alcohol advertising should not model, suggest, or otherwise encourage heavy consumption. 4. Beverage alcohol advertising should not portray or encourage drinking by alcoholics or other groups particularly vulnerable to alcohol abuse. 5. Beverage alcohol advertising should not state or imply that any level of alcohol consumption is risk-free or safe. 6. Beverage alcohol advertising should not associate alcohol consumption with high-risk activities or with situations that require alertness. 7. Beverage alcohol advertising should not depict revelry or hint at the possibility of inebriation. 8. Beverage alcohol advertising should not portray drinking as a means to achieve popularity or social acceptance, sexual appeal, or social or financial status. 9. Beverage alcohol advertising should not portray drinking in association with sexual passion, promiscuity, or any other amorous activity as a consequence of or in association with alcohol consumption. These rules would be wonderful if the alcohol companies would follow them. But, with the First Amendment backing them up, they are not going to change the way they market without a fight. The cartoons are working for them, so why should they change? There is a growing problem in this country with underage and binge drinking and these advertisements are only adding to the problem. We need to stop the problem at its root, which would mean taking the Budweiser frogs off the air. This is a great step toward reducing alcohol related deaths and injuries and it isn’t like the industry would be losing any money. They may even retain more profit because their advertising expense would be dramatically cut. We need to regulate these advertisements now! Bibliography American Advertising Federation (AAF). â€Å"AAF Position Statement: Alcohol Advertising Bans†. Available: http://www. aaf. org/bans. html Abramson, Hillary. The Marin Institute. â€Å"Alcohol Ads Increase Drinking†. Available: http://www. marininstitute. org/saffer. html Addiction Research Foundation (ARF). â€Å"Facts about Alcohol†. Available: http://www. arf. org/isd/pim/alcohol. html â€Å"Advertising Impact on Alcohol Abuse†. Available: wysiwig://9/http://www2. potsdam. ed†¦-info/Advertising/Advertising. html Center for Media Education (CME). â€Å"Alcohol Advertising Targeted at Youth on the Internet: An Update†. Available: http://tap. epn. org/cme/981218/alcrep. html Hacker, George. Center for Science in the Public Interest. Available: http://www. cspinet. org/booze/hacker. html Hacker, George. Press Conference on Alcohol Advertising Reforms. May 16, 1997. Available: http://www. cspinet. org/booze/516state. html Health You. May/June 1998. â€Å"Proms, Parents and Alcohol†. Available: http://www. lvhhn. org/healthy_you/magazine/proms_alcohol/ IAS. Available: http://www. ias. org. uk/factsheets/advertising. htm Kelly, Kathleen and Ruth Edwards. â€Å"Image Advertisements for Alcohol Products: Is There Appeal Associated with Adolescents’ Intention to Consume Alcohol? † Adolescence. Spring 1998. V33 n129 p47(13).

New Businesses of the 1920 essays

New Businesses of the 1920 essays After World War I many nations where economically defeated. Germany and Japan inparticular, struggled with their economy. The United States was one of the few nations that flourished during this period (Groner 273-275). There was an explosion of new businesses in the 1920s, mostly in the industries of transportation, entertainment and retail sales. World War I was the first war in which airplanes were used. They were first flown for observation, but later began to engage in bombing and aerial duels (Baughman 87). After the war people began to realize the many uses of airplanes. Many airlines that had their beginnings in the 1920s started out carrying mail but then switched over to the growing business of passenger flights (Mattera 483-484). One of the first airlines was Douglas Airlines. It was started by Donald Douglas in Santa Monica, CA (Aviation Resource Center 3). Although it is not operating under that name any longer, it paved the way for the many airlines to come. Another big airline was American Airlines. It was started by a few Wall Street financiers who accumulated a couple of airline companies and combined them (Mattera 496). Delta Airlines also had its beginnings in the 1920s. Delta started out as a crop-dusting operation in Louisiana. When they switched over to mail and passengers flights, they dom inated the Southeast (Mattera 497). Juan Trippe, a twenty-four year old from New York bought nine flying boats that the U.S. Navy was going to scrap and established Pan American Airlines (Mattera 499). Another huge airline in the 1920s that is still around today is Trans World Airline. TWA had its start in 1926 as Western Air Express. With all the rising air companies there was a need for production of the airplanes themselves. That is where Pratt and Whitney Corporation filled the need. In 1925 they began their business of building aircraft engines in C ...

Africa.. essays

Africa.. essays Africas Resistance to the Portuguese The African history has been affected tremendously due to the influence of some European countries. Portugal, who probably had the greatest impact on the continent, was not shy in invading what they thought to be profitable circumstances. One of these areas that they profited from was the kingdom of Kongo. Kongo was a major Bantu-speaking kingdom astride the Congo River in west-central Africa, probably founded in the 14th century. It was governed by a king, the manikongo, whose economic power was based upon trade in ivory, hides, slaves, and a shell currency of western Africa. Within a few years after the Portuguese first encountered the kingdom in 1484, the sixth manikongo, Nzinga Mbemba, later Alfonso 1, converted to Christianity and extended diplomatic and economic relations with Portugal. The agreement soon collapsed, however, as the Portuguese extended their slave-raiding activities. By 1570 the power of the Kongo kingdom had begun to decline, and severe internal tensions had developed. Alfonso I knowing what was going on wrote a series of papers to King Joao III of Portugal. In these papers, Alfonso I pleaded with the king to take away all the corrupt Portuguese from his kingdom. With false assurance from the king of Portugal, he asked to have sent those people of religious and medical backgrounds to help modernize his kingdom. With the corruptness still noticeable in the Kongo, Alfonso I was forced to pass a law stating that ...any white man living in our Kingdoms and wanting to purchase goods in any way should first inform three of our noble men and officials of our court whom we rely upon in this matter... (57). These futile attempts of writing letters to the king were not making any significance. The king of Portugal was money hungry along with the majority of all his servants who worked for him down in Africa. ...

Cellular respiration and fermentation Lab Report

Cellular respiration and fermentation - Lab Report Example The researcher states that studying fermentation and respiration as done in this experiment has implications for industry, as fermentation reactions, for one, impact the way we produce an important industrial product for instance, in this case, ethanol. The nature of the sugar matters too, as the use of particular kinds of sugars in ethanol production, to use the same example, affect a number of products that are produced in such reactions. In the first part, fermentation is measured using gas height as the proxy for carbon dioxide measure and the rate of reaction. In the second part, respiration is measured in terms of carbonic acid production. Â  The key materials used are the following: 10 percent sucrose solution; 10 percent glucose solution; peas; distilled water; phenol red; yeast stock; wax pencil; water bath; hot plate; test tubes of various sizes; beaker; test tube corks and holders; test tube rack. The idea behind the test tubes of varying sizes is to create a respirometer using two sizes of test tubes, for the experiment involving the yeasts. A practice session involves filling the smaller tube, measuring 15 x 125 mm with water, placing that inside a 20x150 mm test tube, and inverting to the point where the air bubble in the smaller test tube is as small as can be made from the process. In the actual experiment, three different test tubes are filled with two-thirds of either ten percent sucrose solution, ten percent glucose solution, or distilled water, and then topped off to the brim with yeast suspension. The inversion method practiced above is utilized to mix the solutions and form the respirometers. The respirometers are allowed to incubate for one hour, while placed in a water bath set at 37 degrees Celsius. The gas bubble heights are measured after the period of incubation. The idea is to be able to undertake a comparison of how the three sources of food in the test tube compare with regard to their suitability as food for yeast. This is the f irst part of the experiment (Experiment 7 n.d., pp. 59-61). In part two of the experiment, 10 peas that were either soaked, not soaked, and soaked and boiled were placed in each of three different test tubes, filled with water up to the two-thirds level, and covered with corks. After an hour and a half, two drops of phenol red were placed in each of the three test tubes containing the seeds, more when no color was visible or the color is too vague/thin. The results of the color observations were tabulated. (Experiment 7 n.d., pp. 59-61) Results The first part of the experiment measured the amount of respiration from the fermentation process, involving the yeast solution and the three food sources. Among the three food sources, the glucose solution had the highest change in the gas height at the end of the incubation period, with the gas height changing from the initial 1 mm to 6 mm. The sucrose solution had a lower gas height change, going from 1 mm initially to 4 mm at the end of the observation period. The test tube containing just distilled water showed no change in the gas height, indicating that no respiration took place. In the second part of the experiment, the setup containing the soaked beans had a yellow color, while the setup containing the beans that were both soaked and boiled remained red,

Third exam Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Third exam - Assignment Example John 150.0 16,200.00 523.81 16,723.81 523.81 16,000.00 Romeo Co Stachurski 206.0 22,866.00 437.64 23,303.64 0.00 22,608.85 Total 2374.5 281,396.25 11,584.67 292,711.42 9,598.95 269,788.74 Table 1 Table 1 shows the clients of ABC Consulting, the employees who work with the respective clients, the hours that these clients were billed, the reimbursable expenses (costs billed) relating to each worker, the total billed to each client, and the costs and fees collected from the clients to September 2013. The total hours billed for the month was 2,374.5 hours and the total fees billed excluding reimbursable expenses was $281,396.25. ... total hours billed = 254,665.13 ? 2,374.5 $107.25 Table 2 The information in Table 2 indicates that the overall cost per billable hour of operations for the month of September 2013 was $107.25. Effective Billable Hourly Rate per Worker The effective billable hourly rate per worker is found by dividing the fees collected from each client by the hours billed to that particular client. The effective billable rate for each worker is shown in Table 3. Client Worker Hours Billed Fees Collected ($) Effective billable rate per hour ($) Alpha Co Acevedo 170.0 18,837.37 110.81 Bravo Co Barger 143.5 16,425.01 114.46 Charlie Co Ekundayo 120.0 14,250.00 118.75 Delta Co Fitzgerald 137.0 15,842.40 115.64 Echo Co Fyffe 85.5 12,825.00 150.00 Foxtrot Co Gilbert 112.5 12,150.00 108.00 Golf Co Harmon 98.0 10,780.00 110.00 Hotel Co Hefner 122.0 14,274.00 117.00 India Co Kirchner 150.0 16,560.00 110.40 Juliett Co Madorma 123.5 14,202.50 115.00 Kilo Co Miller 102.0 11,268.04 110.47 Lima Co Myers 122.5 13,4 13.75 109.50 Mike Co Pellek 89.5 12,000.00 134.08 November Co Preston 156.0 16,818.71 107.81 Oscar Co Shahbazi 139.0 15,354.20 110.46 Papa Co Smith 147.5 16,178.91 109.69 Quebec Co St. John 150.0 16,000.00 106.67 Romeo Co Stachurski 206.0 22,608.85 109.75 Table 3 The information in Table 3 indicates that a total of six workers – Gilbert, Myers, Preston, Smith, St. John Stachurski exceeded the $110 benchmark. They achieved effective billable rates of $108, $109.5, $107.81, $109.69, $106.67 and $109.7 per hour respectively, The effective billable rates per hour for September 2013 ranged between $106.67 and $150 and this information suggests that ABC Consulting recovered the company’s overall costs of $107.25 per billable hour on every job except Quebec Co which